The average success rate for new drugs to be approved is a mere 10.8%. With the estimated average cost of developing a new drug at £173 million, this equates to an average of £1.6 billion for securing one approved drug amidst nine unsuccessful ones.

The majority of clinical failures stem from a lack of efficacy (50%), followed by toxicity (30%). Drug efficacy is rigorously tested during the target validation process, yet it remains challenging to correlate these in vitro and in vivo studies with human biology and clinical outcomes. The poor translation of in vitro and in vivo model data to human biology is a major cause of clinical failures, with inaccuracies in disease modelling technologies being the primary obstacle.